Growth Factors in Periodontal Regeneration

Growth Factors in Periodontal Regeneration GROWTH FACTORS IN PERIODONTAL REGENERATION ABSTRACT : Periodontitis and all periodontal diseases are bacterial infections that destroy the attachment fibers and supporting bone. Left untreated, these diseases can lead to tooth loss. The main cause of periodontal disease is a bacterial plaque, many options are available to treat this disease including non-surgical,surgical,and recent regenerative materials. GFs are natural biological mediators that regulate key cellular events that are part of the process of tissue repair and regeneration. Recent advances in the areas of cellular and molecular biology allowed better understanding of the functions of GFs and their participation in the different phases of wound healing. In vitro and in vivo studies have confirmed that GFs can enhance the capacity of tissues to regenerate by regulating cell chemo attraction, differentiation and proliferation. This review focuses on five growth factor families that have potential for inducing periodontal regeneration based on their ability to stimulate osteo blast and periodontal ligament cells in vivo and vitro. Key words: platelet-derived growth factor, insulin-like growth factor, transforming growth factor-beta, fibroblast growth factor, and bone morphogenetic protein. INTRODUCTION : Periodontitis is a widely prevalent inflammatory disease of the tissues supporting the teeth, characterized by a progressive loss of bone and attachment. The ultimate goal of periodontal therapy is the regeneration of periodontal tissues, which consists in stimulating new cementum formation, new alveolar bone apposition, and a functionally-oriented periodontal ligament reconstruction. Conventional treatment procedures may be ineffective in achieving bone regeneration, leaving both the clinician and the patient dissatisfied with the outcome. Growth factors (GFs) have long been believed to have the potential to accelerate the healing process and, therefore, enhance tissue regeneration in challenging clinical scenarios.1 MODE OF ACTION OF GROWTH FACTORS: To evoke a biologic effect, a growth factor must be synthesized by an originating cell, travel to its target receptor, interact with target receptor, or binding protein, and activate second messengers or terminal effectors.2,3 Local mode of action is more associated with the term growth factor and involves Paracrine, Autocrine, Juxtacrine, and Intracrine modes. Autocrine mode of action – Growth factors synthesized by one cell, secreted in a soluble form outside the cell and then bind to surface receptors on the same cell to evoke an effect is autocrine mode of action. Example includes: TGF ÃŽ ², which are produced and act on epithelial cells, and BMP’s, which are produced and act on osteoblastic cells. (fig 1) Intracrine mode of action–Growth factors produced by one cell and not secreted, but acts intracellularly to facilitate its effects is intracrine mode of action. (fig 2) Paracrine mode Growth factorsproduced by one cell, with receptors present on another cell in the local micro environment is the paracrine mode of action. Here the mediators are secreted in soluble form and binds to its receptors on the target cell to evoke its effect. (fig 3) Juxtacrine mode It is similar to paracrine effects except that the factor produced by the cell of origin is cell surface bound and requires cell contact by the target cell to evoke a response. (fig 4) RECEPTORS FOR GROWTH FACTORS:4,5 For a growth factor to exert an effect, its designated receptor must be present in sufficient quantity, orientation, and functional activity to transmit appropriate stimuli. Growth factor receptors can be divided into 2 broad categories: Cell surface receptors Intracellular receptors The most common prototype growth factor receptor is the cell surface receptor, which can be further divided into three main categories: G- protein linked Receptor tyrosine kinases Serine threonine receptor kinases POTENTIAL ROLES OF GROWTH FACTORS IN PERIODONTAL REGENERATION: To stimulate cell proliferation. E.g. Platelet derived growth factor (PDGF). To enhance function of cells and cell differentiation. E.g. Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP). To stimulate matrix synthesis. E.g. Transforming growth factor- ÃŽ ² (TGF- ÃŽ ²). To act as co-factors for gene expression. DISADVANTAGES OF GROWTH FACTORS: They were intended to be made by cells, stored than used locally. They have short half-lives i.e., when used as drug, doses must be greater than actual in vivo concentrations. They affect various cells in individual ways i.e., cells growing in high concentrations of growth factor had an increased susceptibility to cell death upon growth factor withdrawal. They need a delivery system for sustained or, controlled release (in low concentration) of a biologically active growth factor or, cocktail of growth factors. POLYPEPTIDE GROWTH FACTORS : Polypeptide growth factors are a diverse group of hormone-like agents that regulate growth and differentiation through cell surface receptors. They are generally represented by homologous families containing several members with distinct overlapping receptor interactions and hence, responsive tissue specificities. Similarly, their receptors are also clustered in family groups of sequence-related proteins. COMMON FEATURES OF POLYPEPTIDE GROWTH FACTORS :6 Natural cell products: Growth factors are natural cell products that are released or activated when cell division is needed.This action typically occurs during such events as wound healing or, tissue regeneration. Local actions: With few exceptions,growth factors are locally acting. Receptor activity: Because growth factors cannot diffuse across the cell membrane, growth factors must exert their activity by first binding to high-affinity cell membrane receptors.The capacity of a cell to respond to a given factor is therefore dependent on the presence of these receptors. Regulation: The production of polypeptide growth factors is tightly regulated in normal cells. In contrast, unregulated production of growth factor is thought to be an important component of proliferative disorders, such as fibrotic disease and cancers. Multifunctional activities: Polypeptide growth factors are multifunctional, meaning that they may stimulate a wide variety of cellular activities, which include growth, migration, differentiation and production of extracellular matrix proteins. Mechanism of action: In some cases, growth factors can stimulate the same cell that synthesizes the molecule (autocrine stimulation) or can affect nearby cells (paracrine stimulation). Regeneration: Tissue regeneration in vivo probably reflects the combined effect of several different growth factors. GROWTH FACTOR APPLICATIONS FOR ORAL AND PERIODONTAL TISSUE ENGINEERING : Therapeutic application of growth factors to restore damaged tissues aims at regeneration through biomimetic processes, or mimicking the processes that occur during embryonic and post-natal development.7 The complexity of these events suggests that creating an optimal regenerative environment requires the combination of different growth factors as found in natural reparative processes. The use of a single recombinant growth factor may also induce several molecular, biochemical and morphological cascades that will result in tissue regeneration.8 The most studied growth factors for periodontal regeneration have been PDGF, IGF, FGF-2, TGF-ÃŽ ² and different BMPs. SI. NO GROWTH FACTOR ALTERNATIVE NAMES SOURCE 1 Platelet-derived growth factor Fibroblast-derived growth factor. Glioma-derived growth factor Degranulating platelets Endothelial cells Smooth muscles Macrophages- Fibroblasts 2 Insulin-like growth factor Erythropoetic factor Growth-promoting activity for vascular endothelial cells Macrophages- Osteoblasts- Plasma stored in bone 3 Transforming growth factor-ÃŽ ² Epithelial cell specific growth inhibitor Tumour-inducing factor-1 Platelet ÃŽ ± granules 4 Fibroblast growth factor family Heparin binding growth factor Macrophage and osteoblasts stored in bone. PLATELET DERIEVED GROWTH FACTOR: The PDGFs are a family of dimeric disulfide – bound growth factors that exert their biologic effects by activating 2 structurally related tyrosine kinase receptors, the PDGF- ÃŽ ± and PDGF – ÃŽ ² receptors. PDGF was the first growth factor to be evaluated in preclinical periodontal and peri-implant regenerative studies. Proliferation, migration and matrix synthesis were observed on cultures of periodontal cells stimulated by PDGF, including gingival and PDL fibroblasts, cementoblasts, preosteo-blasts and osteoblastic cells [9-14]. These effects were shown to be time- and dose dependent 14. The PDGF family is composed of four growth factors: PDGF- A, -B, and the most recently discovered PDGF-C and -D 15. All of these participate in the wound-healing process, but, until now, only the three isoforms PDGF-AA, BB and AB were evaluated in periodontal therapy. PDGF-BB is the most effective on PDL cell mitogenesis and matrix biosynthesis 16,17. INSULIN LIKE GROWTH FACTOR: These are a family of single chain serum proteins that share 49% homology in sequence with pro- insulin. IGF-1 and IGF- 2 are two polypeptides from this group. IGF-1 acts as progression factor, also stimulates bone formation and have an effect on periodontal ligament cells. IGF-I is also important for bone remodeling and maintenance of skeletal mass and plays significant role in age-related osteoporosis. IGF-1 is capable of preventing apoptosis in fibroblasts by activation of multiple signal transduction pathways. IGF-1 has also been shown to regulate DNA and protein synthesis in periodontal ligament fibroblasts in vitro and to enhance soft tissue wound healing in vivo. Furthermore, studies have suggested variable responses of periodontal tissues to IGF-1 depending upon anatomical sites and a differential involvement of IGF-1 in periodontal wound healing and regeneration.18 FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR: The angiogenic and fibroblast stimulatory properties of FGF-2 during wound healing and its chemotactic and proliferative effects on PDL cells suggest its use for periodontal regenerative therapeutic approaches19,20. In preclinical studies, this growth factor was evaluated for the treatment of different types of periodontal bone defects, in dogs and non-human primates. Despite different concentrations of FGF-2 and different delivery systems used in the studies, all showed an improvement in the periodontal tissue regeneration, compared with control groups. Studies that evaluated more than one concentration of FGF-2 suggested that its effects are dose dependent.21,22 TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR ÃŽ ²: It is a member of a large family of biologically active protein hormones that are structurally related but differ markedly in their function. TGF ÃŽ ² consists of 2 subunits held together by covalent bonds. Five different genes are identified that encodes TGF- ÃŽ ² polypeptide TGF-ÃŽ ² has 5 closely related isoforms in vertebrates, out of which 3 are found in mammals (TGF-ÃŽ ²1, TGF-ÃŽ ²2, TGF-ÃŽ ²3). The three major activities of TGF-ßinclude inhibition of cell proliferation, enhancement of extracellular matrix deposition and the exhibition of complex immune regulatory properties. It is a major regulator of cell replication and differentiation. It can stimulate or inhibit cell growth. It can also modulate other growth factors like PDGF, EGF and FGF. It inhibits epithelial cell proliferation and stimulates mesenchymal cells. TGF-ÃŽ ²1, the most abundant isoform of the TGF-ÃŽ ² family and found primarily in the platelets and osseous tissue, has been used for this application.It has a role in recruiting and stimulating osteoprogenitor cells to proliferate and suggests to support periodontal wound healing and regeneration.23 BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEINS: The name Bone Morphogenetic Protein was given in 1965 by Urist .Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are a group of regulatory glycoproteins that are members of the transforming growth factor-beta superfamily.24They stimulate angiogenesis and migration, proliferation and differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells into cartilage and bone forming cells. More than 20 BMP-related proteins have been identified, several of which induce bone formation.25 In the field of periodontal regeneration, much of the research interest has focused on BMP-2, BMP-3 (osteogenin), and BMP-7. Recent studies have utilized recombinant human BMP to determine their potential for correcting intrabony, supra-alveolar, furcation, and fenestration defects. BMPs also show much promise in promoting dental implant wound healing.24 GROWTH FACTOR DELIVERY SYSTEMS: Several matrices and delivery systems have been used and evaluated for their efficacy and biocompatibility as carrier for growth factors. Two common types of polymeric materials used in growth factor delivery strategies are natural collagen-derived materials and synthetic polymers of lactic and glycolic acid (i.e., Poly [lactide-co-glycolide]). Extracellular matrix-derived macromolecules such as collagen have been used for many years in biomaterial application, and it is now possible to create artificial analogues of extracellular matrix proteins using recombinant DNA technology.1 Carriers can be of different types such as solids, gels or combinations.25A variety of new injectable materials such as hydrogels are also being developed for growth factor delivery applications and have been of special interest. These injectables are especially attractive because, in clinical application, they can allow for minimally invasive delivery of inductive molecules.1 CONCLUSION: Growth factors may regulate the repair and/or regenerative process which are impaired in presence of bacteria and their products in periodontal disease. Thus, the objective of growth factors administration in the treatment of periodontitis is to mimic the normal developmental process enhance normal wound healing response to promote complete regeneration of all attachment structures. Basic and clinical research is in progress to evaluate the role of growth factors in periodontal wound healing. BIBLIOGRAPHY: DARNELL KAIGLER, GUSTAVO AVILA, LESLIE WISNER-LYNCH, MARC L. NEVINS, MYRON NEVINS, GIULIO RASPERINI. Platelet-Derived Growth Factor Applications in Periodontal and Peri-Implant Bone Regeneration .Expert OpinBiolTher. 2011 March ; 11(3): 375–385 RIPAMONTI U, HERBST NN, RAMOSHEBI LN. Bone morphogenetic proteins in craniofacial and periodontal tissue engineering: experimental studies in the non-human primate Papioursinus. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2005;16(3):357–368. ANUSAKSATHIEN O, GIANNOBILE WV. Growth factor delivery to re-engineer periodontal tissues. Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol 2002;3(2):129–139. FRECHETTE JP, MARTINEAU I, GAGNON G.Platelet-rich plasmas: growth factor content and roles in wound healing. J Dent Res 2005; 84(5): 434-439. LAURIE K. MC CAULEY MARTHA J. Somerman. Biologic modifiers in periodontal regeneration. Dent Clin N Am , Advances in Periodontics, part I 1998; 43(2): 361-387. GARRY R. GROTENDORST. Connective tissue growth factor : A mediator of TGF- ÃŽ ² action on fibroblasts. Mini Review. Cytokine and growth factor reviews 1997, 8(3); 171 – 179. SCHILEPHAKE H. Bone growth factors in maxillofacial skeletal reconstruction. Int. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg 2002;31(5):469–484. RIPAMONTI U, HERBST NN, RAMOSHEBI LN. Bone morphogenetic proteins in craniofacial and periodontal tissue engineering: experimental studies in the non-human primate Papioursinus. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2005;16(3):357–368. NISHIMURA F, TERRANOVA VP. Comparative study of the chemotactic responses of periodontal ligament cells and gingival fibroblasts to polypeptide growth factors. J. Dent. Res 1996;75(4):986–992. SAYGIN NE, TOKIYASU Y, GIANNOBILE WV, SOMERMAN MJ. Growth factors regulate expression of mineral associated genes in cementoblasts. J. Periodontol 2000;71(10):1591–1600. STRAYHORN CL, GARRETT JS, DUNN RL, BENEDICT JJ, SOMERMAN MJ. Growth factors regulate expression of osteoblast-associated genes. J. Periodontol 1999;70(11):1345–1354. CANALIS E. Effect of platelet-derived growth factor on DNA and protein synthesis in cultured rat calvaria. Metabolism 1981;30(10):970–975. BARTOLD PM, RABEN A. Growth factor modulation of fibroblasts in simulated wound healing. J.Periodontal Res 1996;31(3):205–216. OJIMA Y, MIZUNO M, KUBOKI Y, KOMORI T. In vitro effect of platelet-derived growth factor-BB on collagen synthesis and proliferation of human periodontal ligament cells. Oral Dis 2003;9(3): 144–151. REIGSTAD LJ, VARHAUG JE, LILLEHAUG JR. Structural and functional specificities of PDGFC and PDGF-D, the novel members of the platelet-derived growth factors family. FEBS J 2005;272 (22):5723–5741. BOYAN LA, BHARGAVA G, NISHIMURA F, et al. Mitogenic and chemotactic responses of human periodontal ligament cells to the different isoforms of platelet-derived growth factor. J. Dent. Res 1994;73(10):1593–1600. MATSUDA N, LIN WL, KUMAR NM, CHO MI, GENCO RJ. Mitogenic, chemotactic, and synthetic responses of rat periodontal ligament fibroblastic cells to polypeptide growth factors in vitro. J.Periodontol 1992;63(6):515–525. XIAOZHE HAN AND SALOMON AMAR. Role of Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 Signaling in Dental Fibroblast Apoptosis. J Periodontol 2003;74:1176-1182. TAKAYAMA S, MURAKAMI S, MIKI Y, et al. Effects of basic fibroblast growth factor on human periodontal ligament cells. J. Periodontal Res 1997;32(8):667–675. TERRANOVA VP, ODZIEMIEC C, TWEDEN KS, SPADONE DP. Repopulation of dentin surfaces by periodontal ligament cells and endothelial cells. Effect of basic fibroblast growth factor. J. Periodontol 1989;60(6):293–301. ROSSA C JR. MARCANTONIO E Jr, CIRELLI JA, et al. Regeneration of class III furcation defects with basic fibroblast growth factor (b-FGF) associated with GTR. A descriptive and histometric study in dogs. J. Periodontol 2000;71(5):775–784. TAKAYAMA S, MURAKAMI S, SHIMABUKURO Y, KITAMURA M, OKADA H. Periodontal regeneration by FGF-2 (bFGF) in primate models. J. Dent. Res 2001;80(12):2075–2079. KI-TAE KOO,CRISTIANO SUSIN, ULF M.E. WIKESJOÂ ¨, SEONG-HO CHOI, AND CHONG-KWAN KIMI. Transforming Growth Factor-b1 Accelerates Resorption of a Calcium Carbonate Biomaterial in Periodontal Defects. J Periodontol 2007;78:723-729. KARUPPANAN P. SASIKUMAR, SUGUMARI ELAVARASU, AND JAYAPRAKASH S. GADAGI. The application of bone morphogenetic proteins to periodontal and peri-implant tissue regeneration: A literature review. J Pharm Bioallied Sci. Aug 2012; 4(Suppl 2): S427–S430. SUBRAMANIAM M RAO, GAURI M UGALE, AND SHIVARAJ B WARAD. Bone Morphogenetic Proteins: Periodontal Regeneration. N Am J Med Sci. Mar 2013; 5(3): 161–168.

Overview of Race Conflict Theories

Overview of Race Conflict Theories Placid Tankie Race is a term that can be defined using many different ways within the society. In the United States of America, for example, research indicates that white people looks black people as having a darker skin color than black people normally have (Hills, 2002). In addition, the meaning and importance of race does not only varies from place to place, but also changes over time. For example, today, the Census Bureau allows people to describe themselves using different racial category which include six single race options and fifty-seven multiracial categories (U.S. Census Bureau 2012). People can classify each another racially based on their physical characteristics such as skin color, facial structures, body structures, and hair texture. George Riter (2003), define race as a socially constructed category of people who share a common biologically traits that member of a society consider important. According to Loveman (1999), in her article titled IsRaceEssential? outline Eduardo Bonilla-Silva ideology and explanation about the limitations on the study of racial phenomena. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva showed that racial phenomena can be better understood if it is considered as a structural theory of racism. According Loveman (1999), Eduardo Bonilla-Silva identified several limitations of the existing approaches toward racial phenomena including the narrow way racism was considered by sociologists as opposed to systematic and rational, contemporary structure, both overt and covert behavior. The article also stipulates that Eduardo Bonilla-Silva believes that the structural theory of racism based on the concept of radicalized social system can be used to overcome the limitations of racial phenomena in order to improve the understanding of the causes, mechanism, and consequences of racial phenomena. According to Loveman (1999), Eduardo Bonilla-Silva concept of improving the understandin g of racial phenomena was based on confounding categories, reifying race, and analytical distinction between race and ethnicity. In addition, Loveman (1999) demonstrated in her work that the theoretical frame work proposed by Eduardo Bonilla-Silva in order to improve the understanding of the meaning of race and the consequences of racism related to the structural theory of racism was undermined by the different concepts Eduardo Bonilla-Silva used. These include: confounding categories, reifying race, and analytical distinction between race and ethnicity. Loveman (1999) and other sociologists agree with Eduardo Bonilla-Silva about the importance of improving our understanding on racial phenomena, but argued that his structural theory of racism was not the best analytical frame work for understanding the meaning of race and its consequences on the society. Furthermore, these sociologists demonstrated that in order to understand how race shape social relation in the society, race should not be considered as a category of analysis, but race should focus on the processes of boundary construction, maintenance, and d ecline which is a comparative sociology of group making that was built on Weberian concept of social closure (Loveman, 1999). More ever, the view of Eduardo Bonilla-Silva on racial phenomena was supported by other researchers such as Omi and Winant. These two sociologists defended the ontological condition of race based on the circular definitions and essentialist reasoning. In addition, their argument for a distinction between race and ethnicity was based on a particular reading of U.S. history rather than on any analytical foundation. Furthermore, Omi, Winant, and Eduardo Bonilla-Silva never define racial category without referencing to race. Mean while Loveman (1999) and other sociologists like Wacquant argued that this analytical pitfall of referencing to race in the definition of racial category can be avoided successfully by considering race as a category of analysis in order to gain analytical study of race as a category of practice.Adopting this analytical frame work which focus on the processes of group making and categorization of essentializing schemas. Generally, one can explore to what extent a particular essentializing vocabulary is related to a particular form of social closure and its consequences. Therefore, it becomes a question to what extent, systems of classification, stratification, and social injustices can be supported by ideas that race can be distinct from those informed by a discourse of ethnicity or nationality (Loveman, 1999). Again, conflict of race occurs when the majority group of the society feels that the different cultures, morals, and values of the minority group causes deviance to the society. The conflict perspective is a frame work for building theory that looks society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and changes. The race-conflict theory sees the society as an inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories. The race-conflict theory is in accordance with the content of race because it highlights how race factors are linked to inequality in terms of several factors such as education, power, money, and social prestige. For example, the United States of America, which has people from different countries worldwide, is considered as the land of opportunity and freedom, and it is also a country that is considered notorious for racial discrimination. From the beginning of this country, just like men have power over women, white people have numerous adv antages over people of color, including higher income, more schooling, better health and longer life expectancy. Racism has been one of the most important issues that the society have been facing and fighting for the past decades. Currently, racism has declined, but it is still an important issue that needs to be addresses always. Although removing racism from the world will caused a lot of sacrifices and suffering, I hope that people will be able to overcome racism, and live in a world where they do not care about an individual skin color or nationality. References Hill, Mark E. Race of the Interviewer and Perception of the Skin Color: Evidence from the Multi-City Study of Urban Inequality. American Sociology Review. Vol. 67, No.1 (Februrary 2002): 99-108. Loveman, Mara. Is Race Essential? America Sociological Review: Vol. 64, No.6 (December 1990): 890-98. U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Employment Statistics. National Occupation Employment and Wage Estimate. 2012. Available at http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_nat.htm

Overview of Race Conflict Theories

Overview of Race Conflict Theories Placid Tankie Race is a term that can be defined using many different ways within the society. In the United States of America, for example, research indicates that white people looks black people as having a darker skin color than black people normally have (Hills, 2002). In addition, the meaning and importance of race does not only varies from place to place, but also changes over time. For example, today, the Census Bureau allows people to describe themselves using different racial category which include six single race options and fifty-seven multiracial categories (U.S. Census Bureau 2012). People can classify each another racially based on their physical characteristics such as skin color, facial structures, body structures, and hair texture. George Riter (2003), define race as a socially constructed category of people who share a common biologically traits that member of a society consider important. According to Loveman (1999), in her article titled IsRaceEssential? outline Eduardo Bonilla-Silva ideology and explanation about the limitations on the study of racial phenomena. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva showed that racial phenomena can be better understood if it is considered as a structural theory of racism. According Loveman (1999), Eduardo Bonilla-Silva identified several limitations of the existing approaches toward racial phenomena including the narrow way racism was considered by sociologists as opposed to systematic and rational, contemporary structure, both overt and covert behavior. The article also stipulates that Eduardo Bonilla-Silva believes that the structural theory of racism based on the concept of radicalized social system can be used to overcome the limitations of racial phenomena in order to improve the understanding of the causes, mechanism, and consequences of racial phenomena. According to Loveman (1999), Eduardo Bonilla-Silva concept of improving the understandin g of racial phenomena was based on confounding categories, reifying race, and analytical distinction between race and ethnicity. In addition, Loveman (1999) demonstrated in her work that the theoretical frame work proposed by Eduardo Bonilla-Silva in order to improve the understanding of the meaning of race and the consequences of racism related to the structural theory of racism was undermined by the different concepts Eduardo Bonilla-Silva used. These include: confounding categories, reifying race, and analytical distinction between race and ethnicity. Loveman (1999) and other sociologists agree with Eduardo Bonilla-Silva about the importance of improving our understanding on racial phenomena, but argued that his structural theory of racism was not the best analytical frame work for understanding the meaning of race and its consequences on the society. Furthermore, these sociologists demonstrated that in order to understand how race shape social relation in the society, race should not be considered as a category of analysis, but race should focus on the processes of boundary construction, maintenance, and d ecline which is a comparative sociology of group making that was built on Weberian concept of social closure (Loveman, 1999). More ever, the view of Eduardo Bonilla-Silva on racial phenomena was supported by other researchers such as Omi and Winant. These two sociologists defended the ontological condition of race based on the circular definitions and essentialist reasoning. In addition, their argument for a distinction between race and ethnicity was based on a particular reading of U.S. history rather than on any analytical foundation. Furthermore, Omi, Winant, and Eduardo Bonilla-Silva never define racial category without referencing to race. Mean while Loveman (1999) and other sociologists like Wacquant argued that this analytical pitfall of referencing to race in the definition of racial category can be avoided successfully by considering race as a category of analysis in order to gain analytical study of race as a category of practice.Adopting this analytical frame work which focus on the processes of group making and categorization of essentializing schemas. Generally, one can explore to what extent a particular essentializing vocabulary is related to a particular form of social closure and its consequences. Therefore, it becomes a question to what extent, systems of classification, stratification, and social injustices can be supported by ideas that race can be distinct from those informed by a discourse of ethnicity or nationality (Loveman, 1999). Again, conflict of race occurs when the majority group of the society feels that the different cultures, morals, and values of the minority group causes deviance to the society. The conflict perspective is a frame work for building theory that looks society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and changes. The race-conflict theory sees the society as an inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories. The race-conflict theory is in accordance with the content of race because it highlights how race factors are linked to inequality in terms of several factors such as education, power, money, and social prestige. For example, the United States of America, which has people from different countries worldwide, is considered as the land of opportunity and freedom, and it is also a country that is considered notorious for racial discrimination. From the beginning of this country, just like men have power over women, white people have numerous adv antages over people of color, including higher income, more schooling, better health and longer life expectancy. Racism has been one of the most important issues that the society have been facing and fighting for the past decades. Currently, racism has declined, but it is still an important issue that needs to be addresses always. Although removing racism from the world will caused a lot of sacrifices and suffering, I hope that people will be able to overcome racism, and live in a world where they do not care about an individual skin color or nationality. References Hill, Mark E. Race of the Interviewer and Perception of the Skin Color: Evidence from the Multi-City Study of Urban Inequality. American Sociology Review. Vol. 67, No.1 (Februrary 2002): 99-108. Loveman, Mara. Is Race Essential? America Sociological Review: Vol. 64, No.6 (December 1990): 890-98. U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Employment Statistics. National Occupation Employment and Wage Estimate. 2012. Available at http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_nat.htm

Essay --

Celine Molfetta Ms.Velazquez U.S. History 1 20 February 2014 Olive Branch Petition The Olive Branch Petition, drafted on July 5th, 1775 by John Dickenson, was, not only, a major turn point in the movement of the American Revolution, but marked a very important point in American History. During the creation process of the Olive Branch Petition, the Battles of Lexington and Concord and the Battle of Bunker Hill had just taken place. Members within the Continental Congress had opposing views on what approach they should take to dissolve the tension between the colonies and Great Britain. Some strived for Independence no matter the consequences, while others disagreed. These others were Loyalist who didn’t agree with the idea of betraying the King, but still had conflict with taxation without representation. They came to an agreement and decided to send a second request to the King asking for a compromise, in order to come up with a reasonable solution to the ongoing war. This plea was other known as the Olive Branch Petition. As many predicted, the compromise was rejected by Great Britain, resulting in new tensions between their nation and the American Colonies. With this said, the Olive Branch Petition impacted the American Revolution in two significant ways by England refusing the American’s request for a compromise guiding them to go through with war and changing the views of the Loyalist, through how the King handled the petition. The Olive Branch Petition is historically known as one of the most important documentations that influenced the American Revolution, taken place in 1775. The Olive Branch Petition was the last and final opportunity for Great Britain to agree with a nonviolent negotiation with the Colonist... ... on September 2, 1775. When the colonists, specifically the Loyalists, had been told that King George III refused to consider, nor open their letter of negotiation it changed their perspective of him. Many of the Loyalist, no longer wanted to live under the rule of their ignorant King (lively 266). In fact, the ignorance of his actions raised the levels of revolutionary talk and ideas within the colonies. With the colonist, now, being pro-revolutionary, this eventually led to the Colonist winning the American Revolutionary War. Works Cited Lively, Robert. â€Å"Olive Branch petition†. Encyclopedia of American History. Volume III. Facts on File Incorporated, 2003. Sosin, Jack. Agents and Merchants. University of Nebraska Printing Press Lincoln, 1965. â€Å"The Olive Branch Petition, 1775†. Gopetition. 13 Oct. 2007.http://www.gopetition.com/ livebranchpetition.php

Pros and Cons of Abortion Essay -- Religion Christianity Abortion Ethi

Pros and Cons of Abortion Should a list of pros and cons of abortion really be necessary for Christians...or human beings for that matter? I mean, have we really reached a point where we cannot tell that abortion is murderous no matter how you color it or try to paint it as compassionate? Apparently so. Thirty plus years after the infamous Supreme Court decision in Roe versus Wade and thirty one years after my own timely birth, I sit in awe at the ignorance of a great portion of society...their lack of understanding, their selfishness, and their brazen support of such a horrendous practice as abortion. I guess I should not be surprised that the unregenerate world can support abortion, but what shocks me most is that professing Christians need to consider some sort of pros and cons of abortion list so that they can "make an informed decision". It is a crying shame that we have reached a day when the Bible is not sufficient enough of a guideline for Christians that they feel they must hear the "pros and cons of abortion". Well, since this seems to be the case, let’s look at some pros and cons of abortion. Lets evaluate them in light of the scriptures and in light of our conclusions based on the whole of scripture and the impecable character of our God and His expectations for us. I recently viewed a site with one of these lists with the "pros and cons of abortion". I would like to review their statements with my evaluation of them below: Pros of Abortion "*Laws against abortion kill women. Even though abortion may be illegal doesn't mean that women won't go through with the abortion. Look at the case of Becky Bell for example. She was an innocent girl that did not want her child and died because of an illegal abortion." ***My Assessment: Yes, people will continue to sin, but we should never sit band condone theirs inn by either verbal support or merely apathy. We certainly should not use the dumb excuse of: "Well, they are just going to do it anyway and at least if abortion is legal, they won't be doing them in dirty back alleys." It is always tragic when a human being loses their life, but if abortion is once again outlawed (as it should be), these people would always be losing their lives in violation of a good, common sense, and compassionate law. If they die breaking the law, then they will die the death of a criminal. But, please keep... ...ortion you will always wonder what if, and feel guilty for the rest of your life about the child you could have had." Biblical pros and cons of abortion: Isa 44:24 Thus saith the LORD, thy redeemer, and he that formed thee from the womb, I [am] the LORD that maketh all [things]; that stretcheth forth the heavens alone; that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself; Biblical pros and cons of abortion: Isa 46:3 Hearken unto me, O house of Jacob, and all the remnant of the house of Israel, which are borne [by me] from the belly, which are carried from the womb: Biblical pros and cons of abortion: Isa 66:9 Shall I bring to the birth, and not cause to bring forth? saith the LORD: shall I cause to bring forth, and shut [the womb]? saith thy God. Now I shall leave you with some very key scriptures as you consider the pros and cons of abortion... Jer 1:5 Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee, [and] I ordained thee a prophet unto the nations. Isa 49:15 Can a woman forget her sucking child, that she should not have compassion on the son of her womb? yea, they may forget, yet will I not forget thee.

Ben and Jerry Corporate Culture Essay

Ben and Jerry’s corporate culture is one that focuses on the environment, its products, and people. The corporate culture of â€Å"Doing Good by Doing Good† and â€Å"Peace, Love and Ice cream† establish the guideposts for how employees behave in the business. Ben and Jerry’s hold a deep respect for people both inside and outside the company. Ben believes that â€Å"Businesses have a responsibility to give back to the community,† while Jerry believes that â€Å"If it’s not fun, why do it? † Both Ben and Jerry have had a profound effect on establishing the values of the company. Ben and Jerry’s philosophy of having fun has permeated the corporate culture and the ice cream flavors that are being sold in the marketplace today. Flavors such as Karmel Sutra, Imagine Whirled Peace, and Magic Brownie are popular flavors today while Cherry Garcia named after Jerry Garcia of the Grateful Dead was one of the first fun flavors. Ben and Jerry’s encountered recent controversy when it named a new flavor after a Saturday Night Live character, Schweddy Balls. The company’s bold position on having fun and being brave has been controversial, but it has not hurt the company’s profitability. Ben and Jerry’s strives to have a positive impact on the environment. The company has a philosophy of producing food in a way that is not wasteful or harmful to the environment. Some of the ways Ben and Jerry’s is trying to help the economy and use safe food methods is by using family farms in rural communities to produce their ice cream products. While this helps keeps the environment clean and cut down on waste, it also helps family farms prosper. The company realizes that the economic wealth of the country is wide and they want to produce ice cream in a way that provides prosperity to farmer while ensuring corporate profitability. In addition, they want to be able to provide ice cream to everyone no matter how much or how little money they might have. Ben and Jerry’s has their own foundation that awards 1. 8 million dollars annually to organizations in the country. Some of the different programs that Ben and Jerry’s supports are The Grassroots Organization for Social Change Program, The National Movement Building Grant Program, The Vermont Capacity Building Grant Program, The Vermont Community Action Teams Grant Programs, and The Employee Matching Gift Program. Ben and Jerry’s also gives back to its customers. Each year they show thanks to all of their loyal customers by giving them a â€Å"Free Cone Day† once a year. Free Cone Day is when every customer who comes into a Ben and Jerry’s that day will get a free ice cream cone. Ben and Jerry’s corporate culture has been successful by aligning its values to people, product and the environment. The corporate culture of Ben and Jerry’s has given the company a unique brand that has proven to be profitability amid some controversial ice cream flavors. Ben and Jerry’s value corporate responsibility by doing the good and having fun at the same time.

Stefan’s Diaries: Origins Chapter 12

I'm not sure if it was the fresh air or the flowers Emily had brought me, but I slept soundly that night. The next morning I woke up to bright sunlight in my chambers and, for the first time since Rosalyn's death, didn't bother to drink the concoction Cordelia had left on my nightstand. The smell of cinnamon and eggs floated up from the kitchen, and I heard the snort of the horses as Alfred hitched them outside. For a second, I felt a thrill of possibility and the nascent bud of happiness. â€Å"Stefan!† my father boomed on the other side of the door, rapping three times with his walking stick or riding crop. Just like that, I remembered all that had transpired in the past week, and my malaise returned. I remained silent, hoping he'd simply go away. But instead he swung the door open. He was wearing his riding breeches and carried his black riding crop, a smile on his face and a sprig of a violet flower in his lapel. It was neither pretty nor fragrant; in fact, it looked like one of the herbs Cordelia grew down by the servants' quarters. â€Å"We're going riding,† Father announced as he swung open the shutters. I shaded my eyes against the glare. Was the world always so bright? â€Å"This chamber needs to be cleaned and you, my boy, need sun.† â€Å"But I should really attend to my studies,† I said, gesturing limply to the volume of Macbeth open on my desk. Father took the book and closed it with a definitive clap. â€Å"I need to speak to you and Damon, away from any prying ears.† He glanced suspiciously around the chambers. I followed his gaze but saw nothing except for a collection of dirty dishes that Cordelia hadn't yet cleared. As if on cue, Damon strode into the room, wearing a pair of mustard-colored breeches and his gray Confederate coat. â€Å"Father!† Damon rolled his eyes. â€Å"Don't tell me you're on about that demon nonsense again.† â€Å"It's not nonsense!† Father roared. â€Å"Stefan, I'll see you and your brother at the stable,† he said, turning on his heel and striding out. Damon shook his head, then followed him, leaving me to change. I put on my full riding costume–a gray waistcoat and brown breeches–and sighed, not sure I had enough strength to ride or to endure another marathon bickering session between my father and brother. When I opened the door, I found Damon standing at the bottom of the curved staircase, waiting. â€Å"Feeling better, brother?† Damon asked as we walked out the door and across the lawn together. I nodded, even as I noticed the spot under the willow tree where I'd found Rosalyn. The grass willow tree where I'd found Rosalyn. The grass was long and bright green, and squirrels were darting around the tree's gnarled trunk. Sparrows chirped, and the drooping branches of the weeping willow looked lush and full of promise. There was no sign that anything had been amiss. I breathed a sigh of relief when we reached the stable, inhaling the familiar, loved scent of well- oiled leather and sawdust. â€Å"Hi, girl,† I whispered into Mezzanotte's velvety ear. She whinnied in appreciation. Her coat seemed silky-smooth, even more so than the last time I'd brushed it. â€Å"Sorry I haven't come to visit you, but it looks like my brother's taken good care of you.† â€Å"Actually, Katherine's taken a shine to her. Which is too bad for her own horses.† Damon smiled fondly as he jerked his chin to two coal- black mares in the corner. Indeed, they were stamping their feet and staring at the ground dejectedly, as if to express just how ignored and lonely they were. â€Å"Y ou've been spending quite a bit of time with Katherine,† I said finally. It was a statement, not a question. Of course he had been. Damon always had an ease around women. I knew he knew women, especially after his year in the Confederate army. He'd told me stories about some of the women he'd met in cities like Atlanta and Lexington that had made me blush. Did he know Katherine? â€Å"I have been,† Damon said, swinging his leg over the back of his horse, Jake. He didn't elaborate. â€Å"Ready, boys?† Father called, his horse impatiently stamping its feet. I nodded and fell into stride behind Damon and Father as we headed to the Wickery Bridge, all the way on the other end of the property. We crossed the bridge and continued on into the forest. I blinked in relief. The sunlight had been too bright. I much preferred the dark shadows of the trees. The woods were cool, with wet leaves covering the forest floor, even though there hadn't been a rainstorm recently. The leaves were so thick, you could see only slight patches of blue sky, and occasionally I'd hear the rustle of a raccoon or badger in the underbrush. I tried not to think of the animal noises as coming from the beast that had attacked Rosalyn. We continued riding into the forest until we reached the clearing. Father abruptly stopped and hitched his horse to a birch tree. I obediently hitched Mezzanotte to a tree and glanced around. The clearing was marked by a collection of rocks set up in a rough circle, above which the trees parted to provide a natural window to the sky. I hadn't been there in ages, not since before Damon went away. When we were boys, we used to play illicit card games here with the other fellows in town. Everyone knew the clearing was the place boys came to gamble, girls came to gossip, and everyone came to spill their secrets. If Father really meant to keep our conversation quiet, he'd have been better off taking us to the tavern to talk. â€Å"We're in trouble,† Father said without preamble, glancing up at the sky. I followed his gaze, expecting to see a fast-moving summer storm. Instead, the sky was spotless and blue. I found no solace in this beautiful day. I was still haunted by Rosalyn's lifeless eyes. â€Å"We're not, Father,† Damon said thickly. â€Å"Y ou know who's in trouble? All of the soldiers fighting this godforsaken war for this cause you've made me try to believe in. The problem is the war and your incessant need to find conflict everywhere you turn.† Damon angrily stomped his feet, reminding me so much of Mezzanotte that I stifled the urge to laugh. â€Å"I will not have you talk back to me!† Father said, shaking his fist at Damon. I glanced back and forth at the two of them, as though I were watching a tennis match. Damon towered over Father's sloping shoulders, and for the first time I realized that Father was getting old. Damon put his hands on his hips. â€Å"Then talk. Let's hear what you have to say.† I expected Father to shout, but instead he crossed to one of the rocks, his knees creaking as he bent to sit. â€Å"Y want to know why I left Italy? ou I left it for you. For my future children. I knew I wanted my sons to grow and marry and have children on land I owned and land I loved. And I do love this land, and I will not watch it be destroyed by demons,† Father said, flinging his hands wildly. I stepped back, and Mezzanotte whinnied a long, plaintive note. â€Å"Demons,† he repeated, as if to prove his point. â€Å"Demons?† Damon snorted. â€Å"More like big dogs. Don't you see it's talk like this that will make you lose everything? Y say you want a good life ou for us, but you're always deciding how we'll live that life. Y made me go to war and made Stefan ou get engaged, and now you're making us believe your fairy tales,† Damon yelled in frustration. I glanced at Father guiltily. I didn't want him to know I hadn't loved Rosalyn. But Father didn't look at me. He was too busy glowering at Damon. â€Å"All I wanted was for my boys to have the best. I know what we're facing, and I do not have time for your schoolboy arguments. I am not telling tales right now.† Father glanced back at me, and I forced myself to look into his dark eyes. â€Å"Please understand. There are demons who walk among us. They existed in the old country, too. They walked the same earth, talked like humans. But they wouldn't drink like humans.† â€Å"Well, if they don't drink wine, that would be a blessing, wouldn't it?† Damon asked sarcastically. blessing, wouldn't it?† Damon asked sarcastically. I stiffened. I remembered all the times after Mother had died that Father would drink too much wine or whiskey, lock himself in the study, then mumble late into the night about ghosts or demons. â€Å"Damon!† Father said, his voice even sharper than my brother's. â€Å"I will ignore your impudence. But I will not have you ignore me. Listen to me, Stefan.† Father turned toward me. â€Å"What you saw happen to your young Rosalyn wasn't natural. It wasn't one of Damon's coyotes,† Father said, practically spitting out the word. â€Å"It was un vampiro. They were in the old country, and now they're here,† Father said, screwing up his florid face. â€Å"And they are doing harm. They're feeding on us. And we need to stop it.† â€Å"What do you mean?† I asked nervously, any trace of exhaustion or dizziness gone. All I felt was fear. I thought back to Rosalyn, but this time, instead of remembering her eyes, I remembered the blood on her throat, having flowed from the two precise circles on the side of her neck. I touched my own neck, feeling the pulse of blood beneath my skin. The rush below my fingers sped up as I felt my heart skip a beat. Could Father be †¦ right? â€Å"Father means that he's been spending too much time listening to the church ladies tell their tales. Father, this is a story that would be told to scare a child. And not a very clever one. Everything you're saying is nonsense.† Damon shook his head and angrily stood from his perch on the tree stump. â€Å"I will not sit around and be told ghost stories.† With that, he turned on his gold- buttoned boot and swung his foot up over Jake's back, gazing down at Father, as if daring him to say one more thing. â€Å"Mark my words,† Father said, taking a step closer to me. â€Å"Vampires are among us. They look like us and can live among us, but they are not who we are. They drink blood. It is their elixir of life. They do not have souls, and they never die. They are forever immortal.† The word immortal made me suck in my breath. The wind changed, and the leaves began rustling. I shivered. â€Å"Vampires,† I repeated slowly. I'd heard the word once before, when Damon and I were schoolchildren and used to gather on the Wickery Bridge, trying to scare our friends. One boy had told us of seeing a figure kneeling down in the woods, feasting on the neck of a deer. The boy told us he had screamed and the figure had turned to him with hellred eyes, blood dripping from long, sharp teeth. A vampire, he said with conviction, glancing around the circle to see if he'd impressed any of us. But because he'd been pale and scrawny and not any good at shooting, we'd laughed and mocked him mercilessly. He and his family had moved to Richmond the next year. â€Å"Well, I'd take vampires over an insane father,† Damon said, kicking Jake's flanks and riding off into the sunset. I turned toward Father, expecting an angry tirade. But Father simply shook his head. â€Å"Do you believe me, son?† he asked. I nodded, even though I wasn't sure what I believed. All I knew was that somehow, in the past week, the whole world had changed, and I wasn't sure where I fit in anymore. â€Å"Good.† Father nodded as we rode out of the forest and onto the bridge. â€Å"We must be careful. It seems the war has awakened the vampires. It's as if they can smell blood.† The word blood echoed in my mind as we directed our horses to walk away from the cemetery and toward the shortcut through the fields that would lead to the pond. In the distance, I could see the sun reflecting on the pond's surface. No one would ever imagine this verdant, rolling land as being a place where demons walked. Demons, if they existed at all, belonged in the old country, amid the decrepit churches and castles Father had grown up with. All the words Father said were familiar, but they sounded so strange in the place where he was saying them. Father glanced around as if to make sure no one was hiding in the bushes near the bridge. The horses were walking alongside the graveyard now, the headstones bright and imposing in the now, the headstones bright and imposing in the warm summer light. â€Å"Blood is what they feed on. It gives them power.† â€Å"But then †¦,† I said, as the information whirled in my brain. â€Å"If they are immortal, then how are we to †¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Kill them?† Father asked, finishing my thought. He pulled the reins on his horse. â€Å"There are methods. I've been learning. I've heard there's a priest in Richmond who can try to exorcise them, but then people in town know †¦ some things,† he finished. â€Å"Jonathan Gilbert and Sheriff Forbes and I have discussed some preliminary measures.† â€Å"If there's anything I can do †¦,† I offered finally, unsure what to say. â€Å"Of course,† Father said brusquely. â€Å"I expect you to be part of our committee. For starters, I've been talking to Cordelia. She knows her herbs, and she says there's a plant called vervain.† Father's hand fluttered to the flower on his lapel. â€Å"We will come up with a plan. And we will prevail. Because while they may have immortality, we have God on our side. It is kill or be killed. Do you understand me, boy? This is the war you're being drafted to fight.† I nodded, feeling the full weight of the responsibility on my shoulders. Maybe this was what I was meant to be doing: not getting married or going off to war, but fighting an unnatural evil. I met Father's gaze. â€Å"I'll do whatever you want,† I said. â€Å"Anything.† The last thing I saw before I galloped back to the stable was the huge grin on Father's face. â€Å"I knew you would, son. Y are a true Salvatore.†